Perception Errors as Seen in “Twelve Angry Men” Essay

The innocent and the beautiful have no enemy but Time† – William Butler Yeats The movie â€Å"Twelve Angry Men† opens up with a sequence which justifies the above stated quote. The storyline follows the story of two random people chosen as jurors who have been asked to give a verdict on a murder case. The case involves the murder of a father by his teenage son. The verdict can be held legal and valid only if it is unanimous. At the start of the movie, everyone except a gentleman votes as ‘guilty’ for the boy. The gentleman expresses his desire to go over all the facts after which he would make his decision whether the teenager is guilty or not. After several deliberations, re-questioning of the stated facts and witness testimonials, slowly the jurors start changing their verdict from ‘guilty’ to ‘not-guilty’. The story ends with the unanimous verdict in the favor of the teenager. Common Perceptual Distortions: 1. Stereotype or Prototype: One of the jurors has the belief that teenagers growing up in slums tend to be criminals. A generalization on the behalf of the juror is incorrect. . Projection: One of the jurors shares a failing relationship with his own son. This creates an effect wherein he sees the image of his son in the teenager held in the trial. He tries to force his own conscious image onto the teenager and sees him as guilty. 3. Self Fulfilling Prophecy: One of the jurors is timid in nature and hence his opinions are not heard and ignored. 4. Mine is better thinking: One of the jurors thinks that since he is an influential person in his domain, he knows better because of his higher status in society. . Selective Perception: One of the jurors is only interested in finishing the verdict. He has no arguments in favour or against the teenager. 6. Pretending to Know: One of the jurors tries to justify everything by giving the statement ‘know what I mean’, inspite of having no concrete facts supporting his arguments. 7. Unwarranted Assumptions: One of the jurors holds onto the testimony that the murder weapon is unique. Also one more assumption is the thing that the sick man can cover a long distance to the stairs in a few seconds. 8. Attacking other people : One of the jurors starts fighting and shouting at everyone as if that would prove that others are wrong. 9. Halo Effect: The fact that the teenager stays in the slums creates a general impression in one of the jurors’ minds that the teenager is guaranteed a criminal. 10. False Consensus Effect: At the beginning of the session, all but one decide as ‘guilty’ on the verdict. Many of the jurors gave their vote just on the simple reason that others would give the same, and not on their own opinions.

Concept of Demolition Man Essay

* The Hollywood film represents the danger of globalization and cultural and environmental homogeneity, standardization and sanitation. * Friedman argues that because globalization is creating a single marketplace, it is homogenizing consumption and culture and can run the risk of wiping out ecological and cultural diversity throughout the world. In the Cold War system, cultures didn’t interact as frequently or directly as they do today, where they are often offered up for global competition and comparison against one another. Diversity in Globalization * Friedman argues that because globalization is often associated with Americanization, countries need to develop strong cultural and environmental filters so they can interact with but not be overwhelmed and swallowed by the herd. He suggests the most important filter is the ability to â€Å"glocalize,† meaning a culture’s ability to absorb natural influences into their culture yet reject those that are alien—to assimilate aspects of globalization into your culture in a way that adds diversity without overwhelming. * Globalization will be sustainable as long as we manage these filters in a way that protects our culture while simultaneously getting the best out of others’ cultures. Methods for Greening Globalization * Mobilize the environmental entrepreneurs– term coined by Keith Algers for an organization meant to stop the logging activities in the rainforest in Brazil while formulating a plan to avoid unemployment among these loggers. Looking at the bigger picture, it implies finding solution to the growing problems of compromise in the industrialized society that environmental protection and economic development can coexist together. * Environmentally Sound Production Methods – Corporations and shareholders should be pressured by the government to adapt new environmental policies. The government hitting companies over the head with both new regulations and new tax incentives to be green, and with SFC telling companies they have to start accurately portraying their environmental liabilities to shareholders—such as where they are being sued for dumping and what the cleaning up cost—there has been a paradigm shift. * Learning how to use globalization itself. Where globalization is an asset is in the fact that it is creating â€Å"Super-empowered environmentalist†, who are acting on their own, can now fight back rather effectively against both the Electronic Herd and governments. Thanks to the Internet, environmentalists in one country are quickly relaying how a multinational behaves in their country to environmentalists in other countries. Preventing cultural homogeneity * GlocalizationHhlksal;kl;ksdsl;adkls;adkals;d—the ability of a culture, when it encounters another strong cultures, to absorb influences that naturally fit into and can enrich that culture, to resist those things that are alien and to compartmentalize those things that, while different, can nevertheless be enjoyed and celebrated as different. * Unhelathy Glocalization—when you absorb something that isn’t part of your culture, doesn’t connect with anything latent in your culture, but you have so lost touch with your culture, you think it does. * Glocalism alone is not sufficient to protect indigenous cultures from globalization. Some hard filters are also needed. To begin with you need zoning laws, protected area laws and educational programs to preserve unique regions and a cultural heritage from insidious homogenous development.

The Molecular Basis of Inheritance

THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE I. History A. Discovery of â€Å"transformation† – a change in genotype and phenotype due to the uptake of external DNA by a cell 1. Griffith 1920s did experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae (p294 fig16. 2) a. took two strains of S. pneumoniae, one virulent, one not b. heat killed virulent strain, then mixed them with the living nonvirulent strain c. living nonvirulent strain became virulent d. nonvirulent strain took on virulent strain’s DNA ? became virulent e. see p294 fig16. 2 S strain = virulent, R = nonvirulent f. ventually Griffith’s work lead way to more studies on DNA being the carrier of genetic info. B. Proof that viral DNA and not viral protein contains genetic information to make more viral particles 1. Hershey and Chase 1950s p295 fig16. 4 a. knew that viruses could infect bacteria and make more viruses using the host cell’s replicating ‘machinery’ b. background: sulfur gets incorporat ed into virus’ protein/phosphorus into virus’ DNA c. took T4 (bacteriophage) and plated with a lawn of E. coli and radioactively labeled sulfur, result = T4 with radioactive labeled protein (DNA not labeled) d. took T4 and plated with E. oli and radioactively labeled phosphorus = T4 with radioactively labeled DNA (protein not labeled) e. background: when virus + bacteria is spun down, viral particles in supernatant and bacteria in pellet f. took T4 (S-labeled) infected new E. coli lawn, spun down, found S-radioactive labels in supernatant g. took T4 (P-labeled) infected new E. coli lawn, spun down, found P-radioactive labels in pellet h. result = it’s the DNA that’s injected into the host to make more virus (even plated these spun down pellet bacteria, and they lysed and released new virus C. Discovery of the structure of DNA 1. Watson and Crick a. used an x-ray crystallography picture (p297) by Franklin to determine DNA as a double-helical structure b. review p298 – A pairs with T and G with C/ A and G are purines and C and T are pyrimidines/double hydrogen bonds between A and T, and triple between G and C II. DNA Replication A. 3 models of DNA replication p300 fig 16. 10 1. Conservative model – the parental helix splits, copies, then goes back together again to remain intact while a second entirely new copy is made 2. Semiconservative model – the parental helix splits, copies and remains a part of the two new helixes 3. Dispersive model – the parental helix splits unevenly, copies and remains a part of the two new helixes but in pieces B. Experimental proof p300 fig16. 11 1. added radioactively labeled heavy nitrogen to replicating bacteria, then placed this culture into radioactively labeled light nitrogen (used to distinguish strands) 2. allowed bacteria to replicate again, results gave hybrid DNA strands (ruled out conservative model) (note: both hybrids half and half and totally mixed look the same, so semiconservative and dispersive models both upheld this time- see below) 3. llowed bacteria to replicate again, results gave hybrid strands and only light double strands (ruled out dispersive model since all should be mixed if this was right) C. Origins of replication p301 fig16. 12 1. origin of replication – site where DNA replication begins a. proteins recognize a specific sequence on the template DNA, open the dsDNA to make a bubble, and begin replication b. replication fork †“ location on DNA strand where new DNA strand is growing 1. prokaryotes plasmid (single circular dsDNA helix) have one origin of replication and replication occurs in both directions 2. ukaryotes have linear dsDNA have many origins and replication occurs in both directions D. Elongation of new DNA 1. DNA polymerase – enzyme that synthesizes the new DNA strand by adding nucleotides to the growing strand 2. DNA polymerase receives energy to do this by nucleotides being nucleoside triphosphate (CTP, GTP, ATP, TTP) since they lose Pii = exergonic reaction to supply energy E. DNA is antiparallel p302 1. carbon numbering – carbon attached to base is 1’, count clockwise, carbon attached to phosphate group is 3’, carbon attached to other phosphate group is 5’ 2. be able to find 5’ vs 3’ end . (p302 fig 16. 14) replication occurs 5’ ? 3’, so strand being made in this direction is called the leading strand and replication occurs toward the replication fork 4. lagging strand is replication that occurs 5’ ? 3’ but replication moves away from the replication fork a. lagging strand produces Okazaki fragments which must be connected with DNA ligase p303 fig 16. 15 F. Priming DNA synthesis (getting replication started) p303 fig16. 15 1. primer – existing RNA polynucleotide on the template DNA strand since DNA polymerase cannot just start adding new nucleotides on its own a. rimer is laid down by enzyme primase b. only one primer required for leading strand to begin synthesizing/new RNA primer required for each lagging strand beginning c. DNA polymerase eventually replaces RNA nucleotides with DNA ones and occurs before ligase connects any lagging DNA strands G. Other assisting proteins 1. helicase – enzyme that unwinds dsDNA at the replication form 2. single-strand binding proteins – hold apart template DNA while replication occurs **FINAL GOOD SUMMARY P304 fig 16. 16 III. DNA Proofreading and Repair A. Mismatch repair 1. as DNA polymerase lays down nucleotides, if it notices a mismatched one to template, will remove and replace with correct one 2. Excision repair p305 fig16. 17: consists of nuclease – enzyme that can cut out damaged segments of a DNA strand, then new nucleotides are filled in based on what the other DNA strand sequence is by DNA polymerase and ligase IV. Replication of the ends of DNA strands p306 fig16. 18 A. DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to a 3’ end (since it grows in a 5’ ? 3’ direction) B. For lagging strand, there is no problem since it replaces RNA primer and joins DNA with ligase C. For leading strand, there is a problem, since the 3’ end of the template strand has a RNA primer, which cannot be replaced with DNA nucleotides (by DNA polymerase) since there is no 3’ end to start from (DNA polymerase cannot just add nucleotides opposite of the DNA template strand – must use a RNA primer) D. This results in successive replicated strands becoming shorter and shorter – the remedy? E. Telomeres – eukaryotic cells have short repetitive nucleotide sequences that do not code for anything 1. elomeres protect the cell from false alarms that there is DNA damage and cause the cell to die since losing these ends don’t mean anything (note that prokaryotes do not have this problem since their DNA is circular with no â€Å"end†) 2. but when telomeres are lost, are they replaced? Yes by telomerase – enzyme that works in conjuncti on with DNA polymerase to add length to telomeres a. p306 fig16. 19 have shortened â€Å"just made† DNA strand b. telomerase is associated with an RNA strand and DNA polymerase c. telomerase lines up the RNA strand with the 3’ DNA strand to serve as a template to have the 3’ end grow d. hen the RNA strand serves as a primer for new growth onto the 5’ strand, then the primer is removed e. result is an elongated DNA strand that was shorted during replication *telomerase is not present in most cells of multicellular organisms (like us) *DNA of older individuals tends to be shorter *telomerase is abundant in germ line cells – those that give rise to gametes *researchers find telomerase in cancer cells – makes sense since these cells replicate often and would have very short DNA (possible cancer therapy is to target their telomerase)

UK Commercial Law - Final Year Coursework Case Study

UK Commercial Law - Final Year Coursework - Case Study Example But, it is to be remembered that the law has made certain conditions to be fulfilled by the claimant which may turn to the triumph of the defendant. Before proceeding to render an advise to ITS, Firstly we shall examine the provisions of various Acts arises from this case and also we shall examine how it is wrought to help claim of ITS, the defendant. The general rule is that he purchaser of goods, which turn out to be defective, will sue in contract for breach of the terms implied by the Sale of Goods Act 1979, or the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982, which cannot be excluded against a consumer. In Donoghue v Stevenson (1) Lord Atkin stated that a manufacturer of products owes a duty to the ultimate consumer to take reasonable care in the preparation of the product. But as said above the law never is single sided correspond to the description and such goods shall be of merchantable quality.(2) This aspect is well explained in the case Varley Vs Whipp.(3) The term, "merchantable quality' means that the goods comply with the description, so that to a purchaser buying goods of that description the goods would be good tender. In Harlingdon and Leinster Enterprises Ltd v. Christopher Hull Fine Art Ltd (4) also the same point has been discussed. Moreover in Wilson v Rickett, Cockerell (5) by applying the purview of S. 14 (3) the court of Appeal held that where the seller sells goods in the course of a business and the buyer expressly or by implication makes known to the seller any particular purpose for which the goods are being bought, there is an implied condition that the goods supplied under the contract, are reasonably fit for that purpose whether or not that is a purpose for which such goods are commonly supplied, except where the circumstances show that the buyer does not rely, or that it i s unreasonable for him to rely, on the skill and judgment of the seller. a) In the course of the buisiness In the course of a business' in the context of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 s14 (2), where it limits the statutory implication of a term as to the quality of the goods to sales where sellers are acting 'in the course of a business'. However, a requirement of merchantability was only implied if the sale was made 'in the course of a business' and that remains the case in relation to satisfactory quality By applying the scope of the phrase 'in the course of business in Stevenson v Rogers (6) it was held that the meaning to be given to the phrase 'in the course of a business' came to be considered as a preliminary matter. But there is an exception this -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.Sales of Goods Act 1979 3. Varley Vs Whipp 4. Harlingdon and Leinster Enterprise Ltd v Christopher Hull Fine Art

Evaluate the utility of the anthropological concept of the chiefdom as Essay

Evaluate the utility of the anthropological concept of the chiefdom as a means of analysing the kingdoms (tuatha) of Early Christian Ireland - Essay Example In looking cultures such as the early Christian chiefdoms in Ireland where the evidence is not clearly established, the anthropological approach allows for the use of research from a variety of resources to be utilized in creating a concept of the nature of the culture. In Ireland, according to the research and information gathered by anthropologists and archaeologists, after the spread of Christianity through the nation, there still existed a series of chiefdoms under which the rule of the land was governed. The tuath designed communities of early Christian Ireland were based on the needs of agriculturally based society. The evidence that is left from these cultures is based on evidence of settlements that can be attributed to the work in the last part of the 19th century by W. G. Woodmartin, and T. J. Westropp who began excavations and created maps that laid out the foundation of the settlements of the tuath agricultural communities (Edwards, 2006, pp. 9). Continuing excavations and discoveries support the theory of how the culture of the time period was structured, however it requires the use of theories of anthropological research and an understanding of the multiple disciplines under Chiefdoms, as described by Earle (2000), are usually a population that is no more than a few thousand people, have some what of a system of inherited status within its social structure, with a chief that is primarily concerned with the economic welfare of his people (pp. 1). Within the development of political governing entities, the chiefdom sits somewhere between the hunting gathering societies and the developed state that is the basis of national formation that is the current model of social and political structuring. The chiefdom, according to Carneiro (2003), was part of an evolutionary cultural development that started with bands of people, moved to tribes, then chiefdoms, which eventually ended with the state as the political culture in

Biomolecular techniques (bitter taste perception of Research Paper - 1

Biomolecular techniques (bitter taste perception of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) - Research Paper Example The project was done to determine the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of students, and the results that were obtained were matched to those of European and Sub-Saharan cohorts. It was found allele combination of homozygous tasters, heterozygous tasters, and homozygous non-tasters were similar to those of the European cohort. This implied that the experiment was largely successful and accurate for the determination of phenotypes and genotypes of the PTC gene. The results can be used in making informed decisions with regard to dietary intake of foods rich in anti-oxidants, in planning of alternative nutrient rich meals for children that are sensitive tasters and finally it can be used by clinicians in the treatment plan of cancer or cardiovascular complications patients. Every individual is different from another, and this is attributed to their genetic make-up. The sense of taste also varies between different categories of people where, for example, some people can sense the taste of some chemicals while others are not able to. One such chemical is phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) or phenylthiourea an organic compound that tastes very bitter to some people while others are unable to taste it at all. Studies done in the past have indicated that polymorphisms in sensory receptor genes in humans can alter the perception in individuals through the coding for receptor types that are functionally distinct (Bufe et al., 2005). The ability of an individual to taste PTC depends primarily on their genetic makeup and is controlled by the PTC gene known as the TASR238 taste receptor gene, located on the chromosome 7 (7q34) and is about 1003 bp long. There are three coding SNPs that are non-synonymous within the taster TAS2R38 gene which are: rs713598–G145C, Ala49Pro; rs1726866–T785C, Val262Ala; rs10246939 – A886G, Ile296Val, and are responsible several haplotypes (Kim, et al 2005; Bufe , 2005). PTC sensitivity is a Mendelian

Compare Two Speeches Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compare Two Speeches - Essay Example Seen in the larger context of the plot, it is noteworthy that the two defendants whom the lawyers voicing the two specific speeches are trying to protect stand a potential chance of getting convicted owing to the jury possibly being biased with respect to their race and ethnic identity. Hence, no wonder, the two speeches are indeed moving texts that intend to persuade the jury against succumbing to the prevalent racial biases and prejudices. Yet, there is no denying the fact that both these speeches tend to differ in their structure, form and content, and the strategy they resort to while trying to move the conscience of the jury. While the speech mad by Atticus in To Kill a Mockingbird is expansive, elaborate and emotive, the speech made by Charlie in the defense of Reverend Andrews is more factual, terse and tactical. The speech made by Atticus in To Kill a Mockingbird does indeed have an organic structure with a beginning, middle and an end. The character of Atticus systematically moves about to make an impression on the jury by making his speech to be placed at the end of his systematic enunciation of the facts and the available evidence before the jury. This strategy has a twin fold advantage in the sense that it not only segregates the two pivotal issues involved in the concerned trial that are the technical aspects associated with the trial and the larger issue of racial bias that could have a detrimental impact with regards to the defendant. Hence, without any doubt, this approach allows Atticus to methodically and systematically bring to fore the simmering issue of racial prejudice in the court house, which was not only till now being sidelined or taken for granted, but is also bound to have a decisive impact on the trial. The character of Atticus astutely adapts one’s mannerisms and body language to suit the gravity of the situation as is evident from, â€Å"†¦ he did something he didn’t ordinarily do. He unhitched his watch and ch ain and placed them on the table†¦.† In terms of content, the speech made by Atticus could be regarded to be emotive, while at the same time being factual in the sense that it lays bare the incidence and prevalence of racism in the society of his times, while urging the jury to rise above such narrow considerations, so as to decide the case while taking into consideration the available factual evidence. Commensurately, while making this speech, Atticus comes out as an authoritative speaker who has a firm grip over the social undercurrents of his times as he says, â€Å"She has committed no crime, she has merely broken a rigid and time honored code of our society†¦ † While doing so Atticus rises above the role of an ordinary lawyer intending to protect one’s client to be a voice of reason and sanity, not only having a firm grip over the essentials of the law of the land, but also symbolic of an attitude that supports an objective and unbiased approach to wards legal issues that he believes to be the guiding principle behind the law that he intends to uphold. It goes without saying that Atticus is amply aware of the mindset of his audience that is the jury and hence had tailored his speech to usher in a voice of reason and fairness into an opinion that had already been presumed to be calcified and crystallized, in an informal if not in a solemn manner. The speech made to the jury

Information Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Information Technology - Essay Example The paper throws light on Information Technology that opens up a vast sea of structured and organized knowledge and information for an organization where the key people in a business are well equipped to take business decisions based on it. This leads to a powerful interplay of power and knowledge which transforms into a business opportunity where the people in power have the strength of knowledge from within the organization. Based on the knowledge with regular data being streamed in for every stage of business operations, the key business managers are well informed and updated to take key business decisions. â€Å"In the development of ERP, knowledge is a critical part of the management of organizational asset. Knowledge has often been seen as a necessary resource of which provides the organization with its competitive advantage. The principle of Enterprise Resource Planning is one of the important components based on which an organization structures its various departments into m odules and correlates their respective functions through IT. ERP of an organization is a huge leap forward towards automization within all departments of the enterprise. It facilitates all the key areas of the enterprise and works in a structured manner where the various ERP modules can talk to each other, share vital information in the form of data, work real time and the effect can be seen instantly in the other department control panel screen. All these functionalities reduce considerable time which in turn scales up the productivity of the existing manpower. The result is the acquiring of structured data within all scales of the organization which gives valuable insight and much required knowledge for the higher management to streamline their business activities and take key business decisions. â€Å"These organization’s aim is to integrate its global operations through the use of the ERP software. However these implementations objectives are often found to be difficult and complicated.†

Developing Countries and Financial Liberalization Essay

Developing Countries and Financial Liberalization - Essay Example Asia has long been home to world’s most dynamic economies. The last decade has shown us a broad flowering of entrepreneurship throughout Asia in the face of different challenges. Factors attributed to this trend include a huge wave of private equity and venture capital funding, but more importantly, regulatory laws for financing and capital acquisition were eased and the less stringent rules governing the listing of young companies at the various stock markets helped in many companies getting the money they need for business (Robinson, 2005). The ease of getting loans and the financial liberalization process helped the growth of Pacific Rim for countries such as China, India, Hong Kong, Taiwan and even Japan. In particular, after the Second World War, Japan came to represent a model of economic development. Of course the massive gains made by the economy were based on the manufacturing of electronics and automobiles but the financial liberation process certainly helped the cou ntry gain its footings after the destruction it experienced (Herring, 2006). Similarly, Hong Kong has always been rated as one of the more free economies and even though it went through a change of government i.e. from Britain to China, it has retained the financially liberal attitude of the British economy rather than the controlled system of the Chinese. Taiwan can also be put on the list of countries benefiting from financial freedom. Although it has had a share of political instability and outright threats of invasion from China, it has led the way in semiconductor and IC manufacturing (Bremmer & Zakaria, 2006). Perhaps the biggest surprises resulting from the process of financial liberation are the giants that started emerging in the early 1990s, China and India (Hubbard, 2005).

United States And European Relations Research Paper

United States And European Relations - Research Paper Example They perceive that the source of terrorism lies in the economic, social and political discriminations that are prevalent on the southern seaside of the Mediterranean and as such can only be addressed through a broad structure that hits at the deepest causes of terrorism. During the time that the Soviet Union crumbled, the members of the European Union no longer saw possible North-South conflicts or nuclear threats. Instead, they saw various south-south conflicts and series of new transnational risks such as illegal trafficking of arms, drugs and even persons; terrorism connected to numerous religious issues; immigration. EU further believes that European security should be less focused on military conditions instead to social and political development of Mediterranean. In the United States, the FBI is a part of vast criminal justice machinery tasked with maintaining legal and political order. They deal with terrorism based on how they perceive acts related to it. According to the FBI , â€Å"Terrorist acts are intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination or kidnapping and occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they accomplished, the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum.†

The Acute Care for Elders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Acute Care for Elders - Essay Example This figure translates to an increasing expenditure on health care to the point of divesting budget from other social services. Statistics show that 10% to 12% of the total health care budget is spent for the aged (CSHRF, 2004). This population also accounts for 13% of the country's total hospitalization (Amador et al, 2007). This scenario brings us to the question of "how can the cost of dying be reduced so that the aged and terminal patients opt for spending their last days in care of any kind to reap the maximum benefit in producing a successful, healthy, productive and active aging". One of the popular responses to the growing economic cost of dying is the removal of "aggressive life-sustaining interventions for dying patients" (Ezekiel J. Emanuel, 1994). The use of pre-need plans such as Medicare is already very much popular. In this paper, we ascertain as to what degree they are used by the patients. This forms essential part of the economic cost of dying as pre-need plans is a form of savings for death. Amador, L.F., Reed, D. and Lehman, C.A. (2007). The acute care for Elders: Taking the rehabilitation model into the Hospital setting. Rehabilitation Nursing, Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 126-132. ProQuest Nursing and Allied Health Source. CSHRF Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, (2004

Platos Republic Three Parts of the Soul Essay Example for Free

Platos Republic Three Parts of the Soul Essay In his book The Republic, Plato searches for justice within the individual and what makes a person just. By comparing his sense of what is just at a political level and what is just at a psychological level he proposes three virtues of the individual which will make that particular person just. The virtues are of wisdom, courage and moderation. A just man won’t differ at all from a just city in respect to the form of justice; rather hell be like the city (Republic 435b). Once Plato has found justice within the city he seeks to transfer it back into the human soul. Plato talks about the ability of a person to be indecisive about actions such as drinking when something in their soul forbids them to do so even if they desire it. This indecisiveness can be transformed into internal conflict between more than one part of the soul. One part of the soul is the rational part and the part that lusts, hungers, thirsts and gets excited is the appetitive part (439d). Plato then identifies a third part of the soul, the spirited part, which is used to create emotions. Appetite is a really big part of our souls. It contains both necessary desires, which should be indulged (such as the desire to eat enough to stay alive) and unnecessary desires, which should be limited (such as the desire to eat your entire birthday cake). Though the appetite lusts after many things, Plato says it’s money-loving, since money is required for satisfying most of these desires. It is therefore obvious to Plato that the rational part of the soul should rule, as the rulers in the city do, because they both display the virtue of wisdom and can therefore exercise foresight on behalf of the entire soul. 441e) Similarly, just as the guardians assist the rulers in maintaining justice within the city, the spirited part of the soul will use emotions in order to maintain order and harmony within the soul which is justice. These two parts of the soul will be able to control its appetitive part, which may, through its insatiable desire for money, attempt to overthrow its particular role and rule over the body and even tually the classes that it is not naturally suited to rule over (442a). Consequently, justice in the individual and justice in the city would be overturned leading to chaos and war. The rulers and guardians exist in order to control and direct the producers who are the majority of the population, as the rational and spirited parts of the soul rule the desires of the individual. Therefore a just person would be one with a spirited part of the soul that would persevere through pleasures and pains in order to carry out the rational parts intentions on what should be feared and what should not (442b). This ability is identifiable as the virtue of courage, which is evident in the guardians. Moreover, this pattern of parallel virtues between the city and the soul continues as a persons reason is most able to make decisions about what is advantageous for each part and for the whole soul when he/she has the knowledge associated with wisdom. As a result the desires should be kept in a state of moderation by the rational part of the soul so that the ruler and the ruled both agree that the rational part should rule and not engage in civil war (442c). In conclusion, justice in the individual is similar to justice within the city where a person puts himself in order, is his own friend, and harmonizes the three parts of himself like three limiting notes in a musical scale (443d). In the city, justice is obtained by the three parts of society each fulfilling their role as best they can, and displaying the same three virtues of wisdom, courage and moderation. This leads to a harmony between the parts, the best possible combination, which is described as justice by Plato both within the city and within the soul. This should be obvious as; after all, a city is made up of many individuals. The harmonious or rightly ordered soul, then, is one which practices the virtues of each part. The virtue of the appetites is moderation; the virtue of the spirit is courage; the virtue of the intellect is wisdom. Through these virtues the human soul attains a certain concord or integrity, which Plato understood as the only real happiness worthy of the name. The overall purpose of the Republic is for Plato to understand what makes people happy. He discovers this through the process of dividing the soul up and seeing how they work together. Ultimately, if you live a just life you live a life of wisdom and your rational side comes first. If you live an unjust life you live your life by honor, victory, or money. Most men and women living unjust lives have a one-track mind. They forget their other priorities and doing what’s right just so they get what they want. Just people always beat and unjust person and live a happier and fuller life. His separation of the soul is very simplistic altogether. However, his individual ideas were very complex. Plato wanted us to to think for ourselves to discover how we decide to arrange our parts of the soul.

Concept Of Corporate Entrepreneurship

Concept Of Corporate Entrepreneurship Corporate entrepreneurship is a growing trend in large companies. Partly this development comes from the fact that markets become more and more competitive which makes it more important for companies to look for entrepreneurial opportunities that can improve its performance (De Clerck, Dimov Thongpapanl, 2009). It is argued that corporate entrepreneurship is an opportunity that can improve a companys performance. Also corporate managers are aware of the need for new entrepreneurial opportunities and are seeking new innovative methods of motivating people to be more creative and make thereby the organizations more competitive (Ginsberg Hay, 1994). In relation with the upcoming trend of corporate entrepreneurship, sources of knowledge are becoming more and more important in the process of innovation (Kelly, Peters OConnor, 2008). In the 1980s senior corporate managers became interested in the process of entrepreneurship, because they realized the need to speed up the process of inventing and commercializing innovative products and services. In these years, managers became aware of the importance of strategic innovation in responding to the competitive challenges of a shifting marketplace (Ginsberg Hay, 1994). Much research has been done in the field of corporate entrepreneurship and innovation. In large companies the concept is used with regards to stimulating innovation or to improve the performance of the company. Baden-Fuller and Stopford (1992) say that corporate entrepreneurship can be the tool which can boost companies in order to get them out of stagnating industries. In contrast, there are also indications that corporate entrepreneurship strategies are also effective when exercised in small and medium enterprises (Sinetar, 1985). This thesis addresses what SMEs can learn from corporate entrepreneurship. 1.2 Problem statement What can Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) learn from developments in corporate entrepreneurship? 1.3 Research questions To answer the formulated problem statement, three main research questions are formulated: What is corporate entrepreneurship and what strategies have been developed? What are the characteristics of entrepreneurship and innovation in SMEs? What are the limitations of SMEs towards organizational learning? 1.4 Relevance This thesis is of academic relevance, because it provides insight into the value corporate entrepreneurship can add to SMEs. The insights of this research are also of managerial relevance, because corporate managers can benefit from the insights into the effects of corporate entrepreneurship and what value these can add for SMEs. This information can guide managers in making important decisions on the subject of innovation and strategic renewal. Corporate Entrepreneurship can in this case be used as a tool to set organizational strategies. 1.5 Research design and data collection The specific method that has been used to tackle the problem is a literature review. Many articles and journals are used to analyze this. This thesis relies on secondary data from available literature. To collect reliable and useful data, the databases and search engines of the Tilburg University have been used, for example ABI/Inform Global and Web of Science. Corporate Entrepreneurship, innovation (capability) and SMEs are the key concepts in this search for relevant literature. Besides these concepts, forms of corporate entrepreneurship, like intrapreneurship have been used to find data. 1.6 Overview of the chapters The thesis consists of five chapters, in which the several concepts and relationships are defined and researched. Chapter 2 focuses on the first research question: What is corporate entrepreneurship and what strategies have been developed? The third chapter discusses what the characteristics of entrepreneurship and innovation are in SMEs. The fourth chapter describes the limitations of SMEs towards organizational learning. The last chapter provides an answer to the research question, a conclusion, discussion and academic and practical recommendations. It addresses the question in what way can corporate entrepreneurship add value to the (innovation) processes of SMEs. Chapter 2: What is corporate entrepreneurship and what strategies have been developed? 2.1 Introduction In this section the literature on corporate entrepreneurship is reviewed, providing insights into the definitions and forms of the concept, as well as comparing and contrasting how these are dealt with in the literature. 2.2 Defining corporate entrepreneurship In the literature seems to be a general consensus on the definition of the concept of corporate entrepreneurship. Ginsberg and Hay state that corporate entrepreneurship is one that generates and exploits new technologies, products, or businesses under the corporate umbrella of an established firm. (Ginsberg Hay, 1994, p.382). In this view, corporate entrepreneurship can speed up processes inside the company and helps to invent and commercialize innovative products or services. Wolcott Lippitz support this statement, they state that Corporate entrepreneurship is the process by which teams within an established company conceive, foster, launch and manage a new business that is distinct from the parent company but leverages the parents assets, market position, capabilities or other resources. (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007, p.75). According to this definition of corporate entrepreneurship, corporate entrepreneurship often involves internal partners. The resources of the parent company and the internal teams of the company are usually managing the projects (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007). According to Wolcott and Lippitz (2007) corporate entrepreneurship is also more than the development of new products; it also implies innovations to existing products or brands. Scott, Rosa and Klandt (1998), as described by Kenney and Mujtaba (2007), define the concept corporate entrepreneurship as the process of stimulating innovative ideas and processes. The common goal of the concept is creating wealth. This definition differs from the other two definitions above in the sense that it doesnt mention the protection of an established firm as a characteristic of corporate entrepreneurship. In contrast, Thornberry (2001) approaches corporate entrepreneurship from another viewpoint: he says that we need to define an entrepreneur in order to come- up with an adequate definition of corporate entrepreneurship. In his viewpoint an entrepreneur is an individual that is able to identify, shape and develop new opportunities and can turn these opportunities into new business or new ideas. Covin and Miles (1999) highlight the importance of the characteristic innovativeness in approaching entrepreneurship. He mentions that innovation was the single common theme underlying all forms of corporate entrepreneurship. According to Ginsberg and Hay (1994) the concept of corporate entrepreneurship is namely effective when a company has to deal with rapidly changing environments. In these environments it is often difficult to predict what will happen in the future. Thornberry (2001) provides a solution to deal with the changing environments: companies can prepare for the unexpected by buil ding opportunity-focused organizations. In this way the companies is able to capture new business opportunities by the resources and people available. To conclude, there is a general consensus in the literature about the meaning of the concept of corporate entrepreneurship. Corporate entrepreneurship is an innovative way to create new products, technologies or business. Thus, it is about the creation of something new. 2.3 Forms of corporate entrepreneurship According to the literature of Thornberry (2001) there are four different forms of corporate entrepreneurship: corporate venturing, intrapreneuring, organizational transformation and industry rule bending. These four forms of corporate entrepreneurship are explained below. 2.3.1. Corporate venturing Corporate venturing is about the creation of a new business inside the established firm, with the focus on a new product or market opportunity (Thornberry, 2001). The concept of corporate venturing is often used with the goal of generating new revenue and creating value for companies shareholders (Narayanan, Yi Yang Zahra, 2009). Kuratko, Covin and Garrett (2009) define an internal corporate venture as an entrepreneurial initiative that is originated within the corporate structure and is created with the goal of creating a new business for the organization. In figure 1 is indicated in the grey areas what corporate venturing is. According to this figure corporate venturing is about entering new markets with new or current products or launching new products in existing or new markets (Morris, Kuratko Covin, 2008). However, they also highlight that corporate venturing brings along some culture problems between the established and new company. Figure 1: Umbrella of corporate venturing (Morris et al., 2008, p.83) 2.3.2. Intrapreneuring There is a general consensus in the literature about the meaning of intrapreneuring. Intrapreneuring can be seen as the exercise of entrepreneurship, but within a large company (Wickham, 2006). In this view, the role of an intrapreneur can be compared with the role of an entrepreneur. Hereby, it is very important to create a balance between allowing him the freedom to make his own decisions and while working between the strategic boundaries of the firm (Wickham, 2006). Mostly some current managers are denoted to work as intrapreneurs in order to identify new business opportunities, because they often already possess entrepreneurial competences (Thornberry, 2001). These individuals form entrepreneurial groups and try to persuade others to reproduce their behavior. In this way the intrapreneurs hope to create new corporate resources (Stopford Badenfuller, 1994). To create successful intrapreneurship, top management of companies has to ensure that managers (intrapreneurs) feel supporte d by them when searching for new innovation opportunities. Otherwise intrapreneurship will not be effective (Kuratko, Montagno Hornsby, 1990). Besides that, management has to take care that they provide intrapreneurs enough freedom to work on the things they like with sufficient resources and failing opportunities (Duncan, Ginter, Rucks Jacobs, 1988). 2.3.3. Organizational transformation According to Stopford and Badenfuller, organizational renewal is a more expansive notion of a complete business (legally or economically defined) altering its resource pattern to achieve better and sustainable overall economic performance. (Stopford Badenfuller, 1994, p. 522). As readable in the quotation above, the goal of organizational renewal or transformation is often to improve a firms performance. Examples of organizational transformation forms are de-layering, cost cutting and downsizing (Thornberry, 2001). Beer, Eisenstat and Spector (1990) have indicated what differentiates a successful transformation process from a less successful revitalization. It is not advisable to change the organizational structure of a company neither the human resource policy, but managers have to start with revitalizing small operations to be effective in the organizational transformation process. To make the transformation successful, Barr, Stimpert and Huff (1992) argue that the involvement of top management is very important when transforming the organization; top management should make timely adjustments in their business models in order to cope optimally with changing environments. Besides that, Wickham (2006) argues that a flexible organization is of advantageous when transforming a company. Organizational transformation is not about the creation of a new business. However, it still is a form of corporate entrepreneurship because it is about the creation of something new; a transformed organization. An example of such an innovation is business model innovation, which seems to be as important as the creation of new products and services. Business model innovation ensures that companies can more easily capture growth opportunities (Pohle Chapman, 2006). 2.3.4. Industry Rule- Bending Little attention has been paid in the literature on this form of corporate entrepreneurship. Just a few companies have tried to create new opportunities by changing the industry (Badenfuller Stopford, 1992). The form industry rule- bending is a sort of transformation that focuses on changing the rules in the industry in which the company is engaged to create new opportunities in the field of entrepreneurship and innovation (Thornberry, 2001). Stopford and Baden-Fuller (1994) also label this form of corporate entrepreneurship as frame- breaking change, because not only the enterprise itself has to be transformed, but also its industry. Changing the industry creates opportunities for growth and innovation (Pohle Chapman, 2006). In agreement with this, Wickham (2006) argues that a company can be successful by following the rules in a right way, but the company will be most successful when transforming the rules in order to let them suit the company. Results that can be created by indu stry rule-bending are for example high quality at low costs and speed or efficiency (Stopford Baden-Fuller, 1994). In order to set up a successful industry rule-bending strategy, Thornberry (2001) advises to denote some managers as corporate entrepreneurs and let them search for rule- bending opportunities. Over time, this focus can be broadened towards organizational renewal. 2.4 Corporate entrepreneurship models According to Wolcott and Lippitz (2007) companies have four ways in which they build new organizations from within established companies. They argue that it is very important to understand that for different kinds of companies different corporate entrepreneurship strategies will be advantageous. Two dimension are identified which differentiate the way in which companies approach corporate entrepreneurship, namely organizational ownership and resource authority. The person responsible for ownership and new business creation and the financial resources are significant influencers of the way in which corporate entrepreneurship is exercised. In figure 2, a short explanation is given of the four business models of corporate entrepreneurship. Figure 2: Corporate entrepreneurship models (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007, p.77) A corporate entrepreneurship model is comparable with the business model of a company. Both must be adjusted over time due to different needs in the market, changing environments and growth paths (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007). Business model innovation enables a company to differentiate itself from the competition and create sustainable competitive advantage. According to Pohle and Chapman (2006) the most beneficial effects of business model innovation are cost reduction and a more flexible organization. Business model innovation facilitates companies in grasping the growth opportunities. 2.5 Conclusion To conclude, corporate entrepreneurship is described by various authors as the process of creating new businesses, products, brands or technologies under the corporate umbrella of the established firm (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007; Ginsberg Hay, 1994; Kenney and Mujtaba, 2007). Corporate entrepreneurship is a broad concept which is not purely about creating new businesses or products corporate venturing as many people think. Acting in an entrepreneurial way and being innovative are the key elements of the concept. The concept of corporate entrepreneurship is namely advantageous when dealing with rapidly changing environments (Ginsberg Hay, 1994). As has been discussed, the concept of corporate entrepreneurship has been divided into four forms; corporate venturing, intrapreneuring, organizational transformation and industry rule-bending. All these four forms have their own characteristics. Furthermore, Wolcott and Lippitz (2007) came up with four corporate entrepreneurship models; the enabler, producer, opportunist and advocate model. Whether these models are advantageous for companies strongly depends on the sort of company and its strategic direction. The four models are characterized regarding their resource authority and organizational ownership. The opportunist model seems to be the most useful model for SMEs, since it is characterized by ad hoc resource authority. In order to indicate the skillfulness of corporate entrepreneurship forms and models for SMEs, insight is needed into the characteristics regarding innovation and entrepreneurship in SMEs. These characteristics will be discussed in the next chapter. dus ben er niet bij..Chapter 3: What are the characteristics of entrepreneurship and innovation in SMEs? 3.1 Introduction In this chapter entrepreneurship and innovation in SMEs is characterized. First, an explanation of entrepreneurship has been given. Later, entrepreneurship and innovation are characterized by using mainly the framework of Hausman (2005) which indicate determinants of innovation in SMEs. This model is discussed and compared with literary articles in the research area. Besides these models, important characteristics of entrepreneurship in SMEs are discussed, such as growth and financial capital. 3.2 Defining entrepreneurship Different authors give different definitions of the concept of entrepreneurship. Schumpeter (1934) argues that the concept has a positive influence on the economy. The essence of this process is innovation, in which innovation has been seen as everything that makes profit (Massa Testa, 2008). This definition of innovation is connected with the market; they consider that making money refers to an improvement in products or services which leads to an increase in profit. It is argued that entrepreneurship creates value to the growth of the economy (Baumol, 2004). However, according to Stevenson and Gumpert (1985) entrepreneurship is more than being innovative, the concept is also about being flexible, dynamic, creative, growth oriented and it is about taking risks. In his viewpoint entrepreneurship is a trait that is neither related to one type of person or organization. As discussed by Ginsberg and Hay (1994) the concept entrepreneurship can be exercised in both large and small companies, but will be mostly present in small organizations, because small companies provide better conditions for exercising entrepreneurship. According to Wickham (2006) an entrepreneur is an individual who lives and functions within a social setting. Entrepreneurs are characterized by the actions they take in order to create new wealth with their ventures. 3.3 Entrepreneurship and innovation in SMEs Hausman (2005) has developed the scheme below, which indicates four antecedents of innovativeness in SMEs. This model is discussed below in the subheadings as mentioned in the scheme. Besides this model, other aspects influencing the innovativeness level of SMEs are discussed, like growth and the availability of financial resources. Figure 3: Model of small firm innovation and adoption (Hausman, 2005, p.777) 3.3.1. Industry concentration Markets become less transparent when competition is intense. Therefore it becomes more and more difficult to respond rapidly to environmental changes with intense competition. According to Hausman (2005), this can have a negative influence on the innovativeness level of SMEs. Not all markets provide the same incentives for companies to enter the market, for example it is more advantageous to enter a market in which a few firms operate (Sorescu, Chandy Prabhu, 2003). Industries in which large companies are involved are often more innovative than other industries. Research done by Acs and Audretsch (1987) shows that entry barriers do prevent potential entrants from entering existing industries and that the level of innovation activities is negatively related to the capital- labor ratio in industries. The research also indicates that industries in which innovation is promoted are characterized by high technological opportunities. 3.3.2. Manager factors Owners of SMEs have large influence on the strategic direction adopted by their firms and the performance achieved by setting the strategic direction (Donckels Frohlich, 1991). O Regan (2006) also defines leadership as an important determinant of innovation, the leaders characteristics can significantly influence the strategic direction and organizational performance of a company. The objectives of the firm are mostly equal to the desires of the owner and this will indicate whether a firm will pursue growth or survival objectives. Not commercial considerations, but personal lifestyles are common reasons for companies who are wishing to stay small and just have the goal to survive (Birley Westhead, 1990). Furthermore, it is argued that the managers of SMEs sometimes lack the skills and education to cope with increasingly complex organizations (Rothwell, 2001). Business managers lack the specific types of education and training that can be linked with innovation in companies (Romano, 1990). This lack of expertise can hold up companies from transforming the managers knowledge into new products and services, and it can decrease the companys ability to respond adequately to the customers needs (Gruner Homburg, 2000). Innovativeness in SMEs is mostly limited by the power and innovation potential of the companies owner, because he has the decision-making authority (Verhees Vermeulenberg, 2004). The view of Verhees and Vermeulenberg (2004) is supported by a research provided by Birley and Westhead (1990) that shows a positive relationship between separated ownership and management from the original owners and the profitability of the company. According to the reviewed literature above, it seems that the manager often lacks the right competences and education to encourage sustainable growth in the company. Therefore, companies would profit from separate ownership, because a hired manager can complement the owners skills and in this way the growth potential is secured. This will also enhance the profitability of the company, as mentioned in the research of Birley and Westhead (1990). However, separated ownership can also face agency problems, because of different goals of the owner and manager (Millgrom Roberts, 1992). So, this means that it is important when having separate ownership in a company that the goals and expectations of the owners are in line. Otherwise this will cause problems with setting up strategic directions. 3.3.3. Network effects The internal communication networks are more efficient in SMEs than in larger ones, because the networks provide SMEs a fast response towards problem solving. SMEs can easier reorganize tasks and processes and adapt to changing environments. Besides, it is also easier for SMEs to respond to rapidly changing environments due to the organizational structures of the businesses. They are less bureaucratic and have more clannish structures, which makes them able to cope with unmet customer needs (Rothwell, 2001). Although, the flexibility of SMEs means that they can easily respond to changes in the market, SMEs will be less innovative over time because they lack the external contacts which makes them less aware of innovative technologies (Hausman Fontenot, 1999). According to Rothwell (2001) SMEs often lack the time and resources to identify and use external sources of scientific and technological expertise and advice. This business mostly lack suitable qualified technical specialists to support research and development activities. 3.3.4. Tangible products Tangible products will often be more easily adopted by SMEs than intangible products, because of the characteristics of tangible products. This speed of adaption will be advanced when people can observe and try the products, because in this way a better insight is created into the product (Hausman, 2005). 3.3.5. Financial capital According to Hausman (2005) SMEs are not pure simplifications of large firms, because SMEs lack the financial and human capital and have different governance and reward structures than large firms. This can make it more difficult for SMEs to be entrepreneurial and innovative. For example, developing a new product is a high risk activity for a small company and it requires large investments. The problem here is that SMEs can have great difficulties with attracting capital, especially risk capital (Rothwell, 2001). Large companies can spread the risk of innovation mostly over several portfolio projects. This can also influence the growth potential of the businesses, because growth often requires an investment of money. 3.3.6. Growth Growth inside SMEs can vary a lot between different sorts of SMEs. Also growth is characterized differently compared to large companies. Independent of action, the organizational structure and its management style are important indicators of the level of growth attainable in a company (Churchill Lewis, 1983). Moreno and Casillas (2007) conducted a research on the differences between high-growth and low-growth SMEs. They concluded that the size of a firm is an important indicator for growth: the smaller the business, the higher their ability to grow. Their research also indicated that high growth firms are often characterized by low availability of financial resources; because a lot of the money is spent on research and development in high growth SMEs. This finding fits the view of Stevenson (1983), as described by Brown, Davidsson and Wiklund (2001), which created an opportunity-based view on entrepreneurship. This view focuses on the exploitation of new opportunities. This has a ne gative influence on the availability of financial resources. According to Churchill and Lewis (1983) the main problems SMEs face when striving to expand are low customer acceptance, difficulties in coping with changing environments, delegation problems of the owner and a shortage of cash to do investments. Partly because of these problems SMEs are not all growth orientated. The results of a study done by Gray Gonsalves (2002), presented in figure 4 on the next page, supports the argument that in the years 1990-1999 very few small firms in the United Kingdom were growth orientated. Figure 4: Growth objectives of small firms in the UK (Gray Gonsalves, 2002, p.31) 3.4. Conclusion To conclude from chapter 3, the strengths of SMEs are their flexibility in responding to changing markets and their grow ability. The flexibility-advantage of SMEs is greatest when operating in markets characterized by less competition, because these markets often provide a higher level of transparency. Besides that, SMEs have a high ability to grow, because their management structure is less complex than in large organizations; they can operate more independent. But although they have the ability to grow, many companies are not growth orientated. However, SMEs are also characterized by some weak points. For example, SMEs are not always able to quickly respond to changing markets because they lack external contacts in comparison with large companies, which make them less aware of new trends and technologies. Also, the owner of SMEs has a strong influence on the strategic direction of a firm. These owners often lack the right skills to be innovative or manage complex organizations. Hereby, innovativeness is limited by the character and education of the owner. SMEs could thus benefit from separated ownership. Furthermore, SMEs lack financial resources and human capital to attain a high level of innovation. For example, developing a new product is high risk activity for SMEs in comparison with large companies, because they cannot spread risks. Chapter 4: What are the limitations of SMEs towards organizational learning? 4.1 Introduction In this chapter organization learning is discussed regarding SMEs. Firstly, an explanation is given of the concept of organizational learning. Secondly, organizational learning is characterized in SMEs by their advantages and limitations in comparison to large companies. 4.2 Definition organizational learning Different theories of organizational learning exist in the literature. Every organization learns, although they are not always aware of it. However, without learning it is impossible for an organization to exist (Kim, 1993). According to Jerez-Gomeza, Cespedes-Lorentea and Valle-Cabrera (2005) organizational learning begins at the individual level and is a process based on knowledge. It is about the exchange of knowledge between individuals and members of a group. Individual learning is important for organizational learning since a company exists out of many individuals. According to this author the process of organizational learning is more complex than individual learning. Organizational learning is seen as knowledge about the interrelationships of a companys actions (Kim, 1993) and it improves the quality and quantity (e.g. more sales) of a companys performance (Senge, Roberts, Ross, Smith Kleiner, 1994). Organizational learning is positively related to the innovation level of a company, because the innovation level strongly depends on the knowledge base of the firm (Cohen Levinthal, 1990). According to Calanstone, Cavusgil and Zhao (2002), the amount of organizational learning is an important indicator of innovativeness, since it creates opportunities to rapidly respond to changing environments and customer needs. Huber (1991) speaks primarily about the effectiveness of organizational learning in the sense that the concept of organizational learning is only used when a company acquires knowledge that is useful for the organization. Huber (1991) summarizes his research in the following way: More organizational learning occurs when more of the organizations components obtain this knowledge and recognize it as potentially useful More organizational learning occurs when more and more varied interpretations are developed More organizational learning occurs when more organizational units develop uniform comprehensions of the various interpretations (Huber, 1991, p.90). 4.3 Limitations towards organizational learning in SMEs It appears that little research has been done in the field of organizational learning in SMEs. Nevertheless, it has already been pointed out that organizational learning is a phenomenon present in all sorts of companies, also in SMEs. According to (Oyelaran- Oyeyinka Lal, 2006) organizational learning is a way in which SMEs can survive in the market. Large firms seem to have a competitive advantage regarding innovation, because they possess the resources to enter capital- intensive markets and invest in specialists (Wolcott Lippitz, 2007). However, SMEs have an advantage in highly innovative industries because of their flexibility and entrepreneurial mindset (GarcÄÂ ±a-Morales, Llorens-Montesa Verdu Jover, 2007). In small organizations the level of organizational learning equals the individual learning capacity of the owner, where in large companies organizational learning is facilitated by different activities which stimulate the share of information and experiences (Gray Gonsalves, 2002). It is argued that the managers of SMEs sometimes lack the skills and education to cope with increasingly complex organizations (Rothwell, 2001). Nonaka (2

Leadership Cultural Diversity and Global Mindset

Leadership Cultural Diversity and Global Mindset Extensive research has been undertaken over the past 50 years to identify and analyze leadership behavior. Leadership has been defined in many different ways, but most definitions assume that it involves an influence process concerned with facilitating the performance of a collective task. It involves a process whereby intentional influence is exerted by one person over other people to guide, structure, and facilitate activities and relationships in a group to achieve organizational effectiveness and success. Robins and Judge (2008) define leadership as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals (p. 385). Along the ability to influence, intercultural, interpersonal and organizational communication skills are crucial for global leaders. For effective leadership in multicultural settings, a global mindset and diversity understanding are the most important skills required of leaders. There are several distinct theoretical bases for leadership. At first, leaders were felt to be born, not made. So-called great person theory of leadership, it implied that some individuals are born with certain traits that allowed them to emerge out of any situation or period of history to become leaders. The trait theories concentrate on the leaders themselves and have shown little promise for either the understanding of the leadership process or the relationship with effective leadership performance. Recent research findings show a significant relationship with the Big Five personality traits and effective leadership. According to Luthans (2008), there is emerging interest in positive organizational behavior capacities (i.e. hope, optimism, resiliency, emotional intelligence, and, especially, self-efficacy) and effective leaders, and there is continuing concern with leader skills and competences (pp. 413-416). Most researchers evaluate leadership effectiveness in terms of the consequences of the leaders actions for followers. Leadership is an exchange process between the leader and the followers. The group and exchange theories emphasize the importance of followers. Graen and Uhl Bien (1995) applied a multi-level and multi-domain perspective on leadership, distinguishing between leader-based, follower-based, and relationship-based leadership styles (p. 224). Leader-based style was found to include more structured tasks, strong leader position power, member acceptance of leader, and common understanding of leader and power. Follower-based became known for more unstructured tasks, weak position power, member non-acceptance of leader, and leaders absence from responsibilities. The relationship based style included situation favorability for leader between two extremes, accommodated differing needs of subordinates, and could elicit superior work from different types. Now known as Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, it says the leaders treat individual followers differently; in particular, leaders and their associates develop two-person dyadic relationships that affect the behavior of both (Luthans, p. 417). This research continues to be relatively supportive despite some criticism it received over the years. LMX seems to be more descriptive of the typical process of role making by leaders, rather than prescribing the patterns of downward exchange relations optimal for leadership effectiveness. However, from the social cognitive perspective, it should be taken into account that leader-member exchanges are a reciprocal process, as leaders may be inclined to change follower self-concept in the short run to achieve performance goals and more enduring changes. Meanwhile, followers reciprocally shape leaders self-schemas through their responses, both as individuals and through collective reactions. The traditionally recognized theories of leadership tend to be more situation-based. In particular, Fiedlers contingency model made a significant contribution to leadership theory and potentially to the practice of human resource management. The situation in which an organization operates plays an influential role in designing and managing the organization effectively. The situational variables and contextual aspects of leadership affect leadership roles, skills, behavior, and followers performance and satisfaction. Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leaders style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader. The theory suggests that a key factor to leadership success is the individuals fixed leadership style. Based on empirical research, Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders end to perform better in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations. It is im portant to note that contingency theory emphasizes that leaders are not successful in all situations. In the 21st century workplace, this theory is still predictive and provides useful information about the type of leadership most likely to be successful. Data from this empirical research theory could be particularly useful to organizations in developing leadership profiles. However, the theory does not clearly explain why people with certain leadership style are more effective in particular situations than others, as well as what to do when the leader and the situation mismatch in the workplace. In addition, mush use of psychology and sociology has contributed to the development of five major contingency theories: Fiedlers least-preferred co-worker (LPC) theory (relationships, power, and tasks), Evanss path-goal theory (paths and rewards), Kerr and Jermiers leadership substitutes theory, multiple-linkage models (leadership and group effectiveness), and Fiedlers cognitive resource t heory (Robins and Judge, 2008, pp. 386-403). The studies have given a rise to a number of taxonomies which Yukl (2002) proposes might be refined into the three jointly inter-reacting categories of task-, relations-, and change-oriented behaviors. On looking at the fields of study covering participative (change-oriented) leadership, delegation and empowerment, Yukl more closely examined Vroom-Yetoons model of participative leadership to identify decision procedures in different situations. In his Leadership in Organizations book, he considers some detrimental success of collective participatory efforts by members of an organization to achieve meaningful tasks then gives the following definition of leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives (p. 7). One of the most important and difficult leadership responsibilities is leading change, especially the cultural change. The creation and establishment of a clear and compelling vision is useful to guide the organization through change, and guidelines are necessary for formulating a vision, as well as implementing change for political or organizational or people-oriented actions. Throughout the change process, the role of the leader is key. While traditional leadership theories focused on the leaders influential power over the followers, the contemporary leadership theories focus on the importance of the leader as a communicator. Contemporary organizations are constantly searching for leaders who can exhibit charismatic, authentic, and transformational leadership qualities. They want leaders who have clear vision and the right charisma to carry out the vision. Although exhibiting the right behaviors at the right time may be perceived as a result of true leadership effectiveness, the evidence strongly shows that people have a relatively uniform perception of what a leader should look like. They attribute true leadership to people who are smart, personable, verbally adept, and inspirational. The effectiveness of charismatic and transformational leadership crosses cultural boundaries. Effective leaders today must develop trusting relationships with the followers, because as organizations have become less stable and predict able, strong bonds of trust are likely to be replacing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and relationships. Leaders who are not trusted are not likely to be effective. Yukl clearly explains, in chapter 9, why attributions of charisma are jointly determined by the leader, the followers, and the situation (pp. 240-267). Charismatic leaders arouse enthusiasm and commitment in followers by advocating a vision and increasing the followers confidence about achieving the vision. Attribution of charisma to the leader is more likely if the vision and strategy for attaining it are innovative, the leader takes personal risks to promote it, and the strategy appears to be succeeding. Self-confidence, strong convictions, speaking ability, and other leader traits or skills increase the likelihood of charisma. Ethical charismatic leaders use power to serve others, align vision with followers needs and aspirations, consider and learn from others, as well as stimulate followers to think independently and to question the leaders views. They prefer open, two-way communication, share recognition with others by coaching, developing, and supporting followers. They rely o n internal moral standards to satisfy organizational and societal interests (Howell and Avolio, 1992, p. 45). Robins and Judge (2008) defines charismatic leadership theory as a theory which states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors (p. 413). Charismatic leadership may affect some followers more than others. People are more receptive to charismatic leadership especially at times of crisis, stress, and negative outcomes. Charismatic leaders have idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Luthans, p. 435). However, as a group they are considered a subsection of transformational leadership. Transformational leaders make followers more aware of the importance and value of the work and induce followers to transcend self-interest for the sake of the organization. They empower organizations by developing follower skills and confidence to prepare followers for greater responsibilities. Under difficult conditions, resilient transformational leaders help followers to see threats as opportunities for advancement and responsibility for success (Luthans, Youssef, and Avolio, 2007, p. 126-127). They support and encourage followers to maintain enthusiasm and effort in the face of obstacles and difficulties. As a result of such influence, followers motivation and performance increases along with improved trust and respect toward the leader. The primary characteristic of transformational leadership is the idealized influence, as opposed to charisma, allowing people to differentiate between the two theories. The major difference is how followers are treated. While transformational lea ders seek to empower and elevate the followers to develop followers into leaders, charismatic leaders may seek to keep followers weak, loyal, and dependant on them. While transformational leaders increase follower motivation and performance to a greater degree, effective leaders typically use a combination of transformational and transactional leadership types (Yukl, pp. 253-254). Leadership effectiveness may not necessarily be enhanced by transactional leadership; however, contingent reward behavior is effective for recognizing accomplishments, as well as rewarding the efforts and good performance (Bass, 1990, p. 22). Global Mindset Cultural Diversity In todays rapidly changing global economy, it has become crucial for leaders to possess such intelligence that analyzes and employs the greatest possible emerging and challenging opportunities as well as observes and interprets the dynamic and culturally diverse world in which they lead humans the most valuable assets of any given organization. The success of the strategies multicultural organizations pursue is largely impacted by the leaders perceptions and interpretations of the global socioeconomic environment. With central focus in the field of cognitive psychology and organizational theory, global mindset has much to do with human beings and their sense in the world in which they encounter daily interaction with one another. We live in a world where do exit dynamic, ambiguous, and complex information that get our attention and absorption. Using cognitive filters, we are selective in our absorption and biased in our interpretation. There exists the likelihood that our mindset an d new information may, however, be engaged in an inconsistent correlation, under which circumstance the information becomes subject to rejection or the mindset becomes subject to change. The mindset of other members in an organization has an influence on and does indeed shape the mindset of the collectivity of individuals within the organization. The level of power, the status of people with whom being interacted, the purpose of interaction, etc, does play a crucial role in the shaping of ones mindset. New experiences, a change in the relative power of different individuals, and a change in the process of organizational and social interaction within members do result in a change of the organizational mindset. According to Gupta and Govindarajan (2002), the cognitive psychology has shown that mindset exists through knowledge structure primarily composed of differentiation and integration attributes. The latter first of two refers to the narrowness of knowledge the individual brings to a context, whereas the latter one refers to the level of integration of disparate knowledge elements in the knowledge structures. When differentiation is low, integration is not an issue; however, when it is high, integration becomes a critical attribute. Many of us are changeable and each time frequently swing towards the person we last met. This scenario where high differentiation is accompanied with low integration is known to be High D-Low I. Conversely, those who welcome diverse options and demonstrate integrative perspective are known as High D-High I which itself is the definition of global mindset. Gupta and Govindarajan define global mindset more precisely as one that combines openness to and awarene ss of diversity across cultures and markets with a propensity and ability to synthesize across this diversity The value of global mindset is best illustrated by the companys ability to combine speed with accurate response. The companys ability to grasp the needs in the local market and its ability to build cognitive bridges across the needs and between its own global experience and capabilities are manifested in such comparative advantages which identify the emerging opportunities, analyze the trade-off between the local adaptation and global standardization, smoothen the complimentary activity coordination across the borders, spread out the concept of new products and technologies, share best practices effectively and efficiently across subsidiaries. The value of global mindset becomes quite apparent when analyzing how its presence or absence might affect a companys strategy in a rapidly growing foreign market of extremely complex economy where public policy is unpredictable and preference is given to local companies as opposed to foreign. Modifying and reformulating strategies in order to achieve goals in the foreign market may still not be enough for success if there is a lack of understanding of changes in the foreign market and demand and lack of integrative global perspective towards the ongoing events in the foreign market. Awareness of changes in foreign market environments can therefore become a major source for valuing and upholding the global mindset and identifying and addressing its ever-existing challenges. Achieving global mindset occurs through cultivation, as prescribed by cognitive psychology and organization theory, and it is driven by curiosity and commitment to gaining knowledge about the world and its way of operation, by exposure to diversity, by unequivocal formulation of current mindsets, as well as by development of integrated perspective on diversity of standards in cultures and markets. Cultivating curiosity about the world is a reflection of attitudes, an element of individual personality makeup. Although the companies are capable of manipulating with adroitness to further produce curiosity among employees, their greatest freedom still lies on employee selection and in managing the demographic makeup of the companies. Companies cultivate knowledge regarding diverse cultures and markets through facilitating such knowledge at individual levels and through diversifying the company workforce itself which build cognitive diversity inside the mindset of individuals as well as b ring together a diverse knowledge base across the organization members. Formulating current mindset is heavily influenced by the process of interaction between people and the environment which shapes the interpretation of the surrounding world, hence affecting how the mindset changes or remains unchanged. Self-consciousness becomes a necessary and inseparable component when cultivating the current mindset which work best through asking managers to articulate own beliefs about the subject domain, as well as through drawing comparative analysis of how different managers would interpret the same reality. Getting formal education that builds on the awareness of diverse cultures and markets and participating in events and projects in foreign markets, and emerging oneself into more extensive cultural learning programs and trainings are all powerful ways of constructing a global mindset. Diversity is about differences, and humans do not easily negotiate differences. The human brains response to differences is typically arousal, alarm, and sometimes attacks, until such time as the differences are processed by exposure, reason, or mastery (Marsella, 2009, p. 121). The interactions between social diversity markers (i.e. ethnicity, race, age, sex, gender, social class, religion, sexual orientation, physical or mental challenges, physique, etc) as well as between interpersonal and individual differences result in different conditions of acceptability. Differences become the source of problems in cultures and organization; however, diversity encounters occur under problematic perceptions. Leaders across the globe face the ever-increasing cultural challenges during their day-to-day interaction with humans within and outside the organization. In this global era, cultural diversity intelligence, competence, understanding, appreciation and embracement are required of effective global leaders. [Negotiate Diversity Immergance of Conflict (this is on a chart in the article)] Successful leadership of todays increasingly diverse workplace is among the most important global challenges. The problem of managing todays culturally diverse workforce is the unfortunate inability of the leaders and managers to fully comprehend the organizational, cultural, and global dynamics. The global economy has moved diversity to the top of any leaders agenda. There is a reason to believe that cultural issues in leadership should be studied to reveal both differences between cultures and specific within-country practices that would help expatriate leaders succeed. Organizational communication will differ across cultures. Todays global leaders need to recognize such differences. Most of the research on leadership theories has been conducted in English-speaking countries, limiting our knowledge about how culture might influence their validity, particularly in Eastern cultures. During the last decade, interest in cross-cultural leadership has increased dramatically for apparent reasons. Increasing globalization of organizations has made it more critical to learn about effective leadership in different cultures. Influencing and motivating culturally diverse workforce has become an increasing challenge for global leaders or leaders of cultural diversity on local levels. Successful influence requires a broad understanding of cultural differences and motivational factors in each culture. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program has carried on a cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture, using data from 825 organizations in 62 countries to identify nine dimensions on which national cultures differ: power distance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; uncertainty avoidance; long-term versus short-term orientation; and humane versus performance orientation (Robbins and Judge, 2008, p. 125). The GLOBE framework is primarily based on Geert Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures one of the most referenced approaches for analyzing cultural variances since 1970s (p. 124). According to Yukl (2002), the results of the GLOBE research indicate that certain traits, skills, and behaviors are rated highly relevant for effective leaderships in all culture, for example, integrity (honest, trustworthy, just), visionary (has foresight, plans ahead), inspirational (positive, dynamic, encourages, motivates, builds confidence), decisive, diplomatic, achievement-oriented, and team-integrator, whereas some attributes varied widely in relevance across cultures, such as ambitious, cautious, compassionate, domineering, indirect, risk taker, self-sacrificing, sensitive, status conscious, etc. (p. 418). Examining the relationship among societal cultures, situational variables (such as strategy, culture, uncertainty, etc), leadership process, and organizational effectiveness, the GLOBE project has provided significant research results for leadership of cultural diversity in the rapid pace of globalization and economic development. To have a broader understanding of how leadership of cultural diversity and organizational communication with global mindset are applied in real world practices, I have decided to interview three individuals, who hold positions in public, non-profit, and private sectors, as well as to analyze and relate my findings to some leadership and diversity management research. My first interviewee, Miss. Hanying Li from Singapore, had started working in private sector but transitioned to the non-profit sector for most of her career life. She currently serves as senior program officer for Mangroves for the Future, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (AUCN) Asia Regional Office in Bangkok, Thailand. Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a regional multi-partner initiative on coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and management. Her main responsibilities include program coordination with all stakeholders, including six partner agencies, two donors, eight focal countries, etc., as well as project management (84 small projects and 9 large projects in six countries), and day-to-day running of the regional Secretariat. She has unshakeable knowledge of diversity and enormous amount of professional experiences cross-culturally. She was a valuable asset for my research, as I was trying to particularly learn about cross-cultural leadership in Asian cultures. Wi th her strong background and knowledge of Singaporean culture and workforce, she was able to address the core culture values and beliefs of Singaporeans which facilitated my exploratory study of Hofstedes and Trampenaars cross-cultural dimensions and leadership. Singapore is a major success story. Its solid foundation leaves only the question of how to continue expanding in the face of increasing international competition. To date, however, Singapore has emerged as an urban planners ideal model and the leader and financial center of Southeast Asia. Li believes that leading an organization, motivating the workforce, and assuring organizational success in Singapore require a careful study of cultural values, traditions, and norms, as well as diversity training. In her opinion, not many people from western leading nations have been successful in Asian markets, primarily because of the inability to understand and accept the cultural differences and lead according to those differences. According to Li, Singaporeans treat special groups of people with special respect and courtesy. Honored guests, elders, parents, teachers, bosses and leaders must be treated differently. They strongly value and adhere to a hierarchical relationship in society, as a result of Confucian teaching thinking. They see the society as composed of people who are inherently unequal in rank and standing, and differences in rank are signaled and reinforced by the style of the interaction between the parties involved. Deference, respect and formality towards superiors are the norm. In addition, juniors are supposed to keep their opinions to themselves unless specifically and directly asked. Hence, subordinates in Singapore are unlikely to question authority and are less likely to initiate upward communication unless requested to do so because its culture values the importance of status differences and hierarchies. The complex authority and status relationships characterize Singaporeans as a hier archical culture which parallels with the idea of power distance in Hofstedes study. Luthans (2008) notes that power distance is the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally (pg. 432). Singapore has a high rating on power distance which means that large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture. Li suggests that a societys level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders; furthermore, power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others. In Singapore, people feel less threatened by ambiguous situations, motions are shown less in public, younger people are trustworthy, and people are willing to take risks in life. The authorities are there to serve the citizens. Conflicts and competition can be contained on the level of fair play and are used constructively. Singapore has comparatively low uncertainty avoidance; it has organization settings with less structuring of activities, fewer written rules, less risk taking by managers, higher labor turnover, and more ambitious employees. The Organization encourages personnel to use their own initiative and assume responsibility for their actions. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these. Luthans (2008) defines uncertainty avoidance as the extent a society, organization, or groups rely on norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future ev ents (p. 432). Li mentions that leaders from individualistic cultures might have hard time motivating Singaporean employees if there is no appreciation and respect for employees family members. Tasks are not usually distributed to individuals, but rather to a group. Traditional Asian value of family ties remains paramount to the average Singaporean. Hence, it is not surprising that it is the group rather than the individual that is emphasized in Singaporean society. In Singapore, children are raised to stay within the family. From early infancy on, children are conditioned to be a part of the group and to stay within the group. They are socialized to be dependent on the group, to make decisions that benefit the group, and to make choices for, and in support of, the group. Children are taught to assist and uphold the honor of the group, whether that group is the family, the school, the neighborhood, or the nation. The person who places individual needs ahead of the group needs is considered to be am oral, almost a misfit, or even a social deviant. To sum up, familys moral influences and kinship partners lead Singaporeans to be collectivistic, rather than individualistic. Group collectivism is the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, or cohesiveness in their organizations or families (Luthans, 2008, p. 432). In contrast, individualism is t he tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family. Lastly, towards the end of the interview, Li mentioned about the importance of cross-cultural human-relation intelligence for effective leadership. Some cultures like Singapore are emotionally neutral not showing their feelings in public or organizations, acting stoically, and maintaining their composure which does not necessarily mean disinterest. This notion of emotional intelligence has become increasingly important for culturally diverse leadership environments. Luthans, Youssef, and Avolio (2007) defined emotional intelligence (EI) as the ability to accurately perceive, express, understand, use, and manage emotions in oneself and others in order to facilitate cognitive, emotional, and social growth and development (p. 183). My second interviewee, Mr. Hovep Seferian, is the Vice Consul, Press and Trade Attachà © of the Brazilian Embassy in the Republic of Armenia. Throughout his life and career, he has lived and experienced major cultural differences and challenges in Syria, Lebanon, India, Egypt, France, Brazil, and Armenia. His multicultural experiences have immensely influenced his perspective on cultural differences. As an immigrant especially in India and Lebanon, he underwent major obstacles, hoping to integrate in the system without being discriminated. Life experiences have not only made him a transformational leader, but also a selfless public servant and administrator. Seferian emphasizes the importance of ethical and moral responsibilities public leaders should have when tensions and diversity challenges occur. They are to be perceived honorable in their field before they are trusted with public affairs and business. Once honor is gained by the followers, they are to follow personal morality, as well as professional, organizational, and social ethics. An ethical public leader would not use the position for personal or private gains in a democratic mechanism. Nations are democratic when public officials follow the rule of law to truthfully serve the citizens without selfish ambitions. Personal motivations, value-free neutrality, legitimacy, and social equity may heavily influence on public leaders role in the society and their commitment to ethical conduct in decision making and democratic service. Personal morality is closely related to personal motivations, since personal concerns, such as career advancement, financial security, or private gains, play a significant role in the professional workplace. The public service environment is quite complex, making it difficult to generalize about the nature of public service and identify the way public leaders can best serve the public. The organizational and social ethics hold the public leaders responsible for protecting individuals in the society and furthering the process of the group as a whole. Standards of conduct, formal guidelines for ethical behavior, and other norms have been created to hold public leaders accountable for their actions. Ethics and morality in government sector should be addressed more now than ever before with the emerging diversity challenges the system encounters, Seferian believes. Despite the cultural and diversity challenges, public/government officials have an obligation to be fair and just for all citizens. As representatives of the citizenry, they have the responsibility to bring social justice, equity, and economic efficiency. However, Safarian mentions that in certain countries, like those of the former Soviet Union, it has become increasingly difficult for public administrators to intervene in governmental decision-making and public policy to address diversity and equality issues. Although attempts towards democratization have been made, the cultural and polit